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specialization [7speFElai5zeiFEn] n．专门化,特殊化,专业化
[同根] specialize [5speFElaiz] v．专门研究,专攻,专门从事,成为专家
be seen as  被看作
response [ris5pCns] n．①反应,响应 ②回答,答复
[同根] respond [ris5pCnd] v．①作答,回答 ②作出反应,响应
accumulation [Ekju:mjJ5leIF(E)n] n．①积累,积攒 ②聚积物
[同根] accumulate [E5kju:mjuleit] v．积累,积攒,积聚  accumulative [E5kju:mjulEtiv] a．积累而成的,累积(性)的
split up  分开,分裂
subject matter (讨论、著作、影片等的)题目,论题,题材,主要内容
handle [5hAndl] v．①处理,处置,应付,对待,论及 ②触,摸,拿 ③操作,操纵,管理,指挥,训练
a series of  一系列
process [prE5ses] n．①过程,进程  ②工序,制作方法,加工方法 v．加工,处理
professionalisation [prE5feFEnE7lizEm]  n．职业化,专业化
[同根] professional [prE5feFEnl] a．①职业的,职业性的,从事特定专业的 ②非常内行的,极为称职的  n．以特定职业谋生的人,专业人员,专家
clear-cut a．①明确的,清楚的 ②轮廓鲜明的,清晰的
draw a distinction between．．．and．．．  区别…与…
amateur [5AmEtE(, 5AmEtjuE] n.①(艺术、科学等的) 业余爱好者②外行a.①业余爱好的②外行的
[同义] beginner；non-professional
[反义] expert,specialist；professional
exception [ik5sepFEn] n．除外,例外,除外的人,例外的事物
[同根] exceptional [ik5sepFEnl] a．①(儿童因天才或有身心缺陷)需要特殊教育的 ②例外的,罕见的,独特的,异常的
connotation [7kCnEu5teiFEn] n．①内涵意义,隐含意义,
转义②含蓄
[同根] connote [kC5nEut] v．①包含,意味着        
②暗示,意味着有…的结果(或伴随条件等)
integrate [5inti^reit] v．①使成一体,使合并(with,into)  ②使完全,使完善
[同义] combine,join,perfect
[反义] disintegrate
[同根] integration [7inti5^reiFEn] n．①结合 ②      
整体
in particular  特别,尤其
consequent [5kCnsikwEnt] a．作为结果(或后果)的,随之           
发生的
[同根] consequence [5kCnsikwEns] n．①        
结果,后果 ②重要(性),重大,显要,卓越
           consequently [5kRnsIkwEntlI] ad．所以,因此
in terms of  从…方面来说,按照
reveal [ri5vi:l] v．①揭示,揭露 ②展现,显示
[同义]disclose,uncover,show,display,demonstrate
[反义] conceal,hide
[同根] revelation [7revi5leiFEn] n．揭示,揭露,显示
primacy [5praimEsi] n．第一位,首位,卓越
[同根] prime [praim] a．①首要的,首位的,主要的 ②最初的,原始的,原有的,基本的
definition [7defi5niFEn] n．定义,解释
[同根] define [di5fain] v．①解释,给…下定义 ②使明确,使清楚 ③规定,限定
        definite [5definit] a．明确的,肯定的,限定的
constitute [5kCnstitju:t] v．①组成,构成 ②建立,制定(法律等)
[同义] compose,form,organize,establish
[同根] constituent [kEn5stitjuEnt] a．组成的,形成的 n．成分,组分   constitution [7kCnsti5tju:FEn] n．①构成,构造 ②体质,素质 ③法规,宪法
in one's own right  凭本身的权利(或能力、实力、资格等)
incorporate [in5kC:pEreit] v．①包含,吸收 ②合并,混合 a．合并的
[同义] combine,join,merge
[同根] incorporation [in7kC:pE5reiFEn] n．①包含,吸收 ②合并 ③公司
reflect on ①考虑 ②反映,表现
pursue [pE5sju:] v．①从事,忙于,继续 ②追赶,追随,追求③纠缠   
[同义] chase,hunt
[反义] flee,escape
[同根] pursuit [pE5sju:t] n．①追逐,追捕 ②追求,寻找 ③从事,事务,娱乐,爱好
overall [5EuvErC:l] a．总的,包括一切的,全面的
entrance [in5trB:ns] n．①进入,登场,上场 ②入口,进口[同根] enter [5entE] v．①进入,穿入②参加,加入
reinforce [7ri:in5fC:s] v．增援,加强
[同义] increase,strengthen
[反义] undermine
[同根] reinforcement [7ri:in5fC:smEnt] n．增援, 加强
referee [7refE5ri:] v．①审阅,鉴定②担任裁判,仲裁,调停
differentiation [7difE7renFi5eiFEn] n．区分,区别,鉴别
[同根] differentiate [7difE5renFieit] v．区               
分,区别,鉴别
whereas [(h)wZEr5Az] conj．然而,但是,尽管
under way在进行中,在前进中
delay [di5lei] v．①使延期,推迟 ②耽搁,延误 n．①延迟,   
耽搁 ②耽搁的时间
[同义] detain,postpone
[反义] hurry,hasten
reckon [5rekEn] v．①认为 ②估计,判断 ③指望,想要
crucial [5kru:FiEl, 5kru:FEl] a．①决定性的,关键性的 ②      
严酷的,考验的
[同义] important,critical,decisive,essential]


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选项词汇注释

publication [7pQbli5keiFEn] n．①出版物 ②出版 ③发表,公布
[同根] publish [5pQbliF] v．①出版,发行  ②发表,刊登
expansion [iks5pAnFEn] n．扩展,扩大,扩充,膨胀
[同根] expand [iks5pAnd] v．①扩大,扩展,膨胀 ②变得和蔼愉快,感到心旷神怡

specialisation （专业化）即special+is(e)+ation，special（特别的；额外的），-ise动词后缀（specialise即v.专业化），-ation名词后缀；specialist（专家；专科医生）←special+ist后缀表“人”。Love is a special affection for a man or a woman, which is stronger than that for any other person.爱情是对一个男人或女人的特殊的好感，它比对其他任何人的好感都强烈。specialist — a doctor whose patients can be ill only during office hours 专科医生——一位医生：他的病人只有在上班时间才能生病。specialist — one who knows more and more about less and less 专家——对越来越少的东西懂得越来越多的人。
accumulation （积累，堆积）即accumulate+ation，accumulate（v.积累，堆积），-ation名词后缀。University are full of knowledge; the freshmen bring a little in and the seniors take none away, and knowledge accumulates.大学里充满了知识，新生带进来一些，高年级学生则一点也不带走，于是知识就积累了下来。Books are the ever-burning lamps of accumulated wisdom.书籍是积累智慧的明灯。
connotation （涵义）即con+not(e)+ation，con-前缀“一起”，note记录，-ation名词后缀，“所有东西都被一起记录在其中”→涵义。
integrate （使成为一体）←integr完整+ate，
reveal /ri5vi:l/ （v.展现；揭示；泄露）即re+veal，re-前缀(=away)，veal(=veil)面纱，“揭开面纱”→展示。A person reveals his character by nothing so clearly as the joke he resents.没有什么比一个人所反感的笑话更能显露他的为人。If you reveal your secrets to the wind, you should not blame the wind for revealing them to the trees.你如果把秘密泄露给风，就不应责怪风把秘密泄露给树。
referee （仲裁者v.仲裁）←refer+ee。

separate （分离的v.分离）←se+par+ate，se-前缀“分离”，par看作part“分离”，-ate后缀。同前缀词：select（v.选择a.精选的）←se+lect选。We sleep in separate rooms, we have dinner apart, we take separate vacations — we're doing everything we can to keep our marriage together.我们在分开的房间睡觉，我们分开吃饭，我们分开度假——我们做着能做的一切以维持婚姻。You can't separate peace from freedom because no one can be at peace unless he has his freedom.你无法将安宁与自由分开，因为得不到自由谁都不会安宁。
delay （v.n.耽搁，延迟）看作de+lay，de-向下，lay放，把事情暂时“放下”→耽搁。Never delay that should be done today until tomorrow.不要把今天应做的事推迟到明天。
reckon （v.认为；估算）看作re+ckon，re-前缀“反复”，ckon谐音“啃”，题目太难了，需要“re啃”才能“估算”出答案。I reckon being ill as one of the great pleasures of life, provided one is not too ill and is not obliged to work till one is better.我把生病当作人生一大乐趣，只要病得不太严重，并且在好转之前不被要求工作。To sensible men, every day is a day of reckoning.对明智的人来说，每一天的时间都要精打细算。
crucial /5kru:FEl/（极重要的，决定性的）即cruc+ial，cruc词根(=cross)，-ail形容词后缀，“处于十字路口的”→关键的。

　Specialisation can be seen as a response to the problem of an increasing accumulation of scientific knowledge. By splitting up the subject matter into smaller units, one man could continue to handle the information and use it as the basis for further research. But specialisation was only one of a series of related developments in science affecting the process of communication. Another was the growing professionalisation of scientific activity.
　　No clear-cut distinction can be drawn between professionals and amateurs in science: exceptions can be found to any rule. Nevertheless, the word "amateur" does carry a connotation that the person concerned is not fully integrated into the scientific community and, in particular, may not fully share its values. The growth of specialisation in the nineteenth century, with its consequent requirement of a longer, more complex training, implied greater problems for amateur participation in science. The trend was naturally most obvious in those areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training, and can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the United Kingdom.
　　A comparison of British geological publications over the last century and a half reveals not simply an increasing emphasis on the primacy of research, but also a changing definition of what constitutes an acceptable research paper. Thus, in the nineteenth century, local geological studies represented worthwhile research in their own right; but, in the twentieth century, local studies have increasingly become acceptable to professionals only if they incorporate, and reflect on, the wider geological picture. Amateurs, on the other hand, have continued to pursue local studies in the old way. The overall result has been to make entrance to professional geological journals harder for amateurs, a result that has been reinforced by the widespread introduction of refereeing, first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geological journals in the twentieth century. As a logical consequence of this development, separate journals have now appeared aimed mainly towards either professional or amateur readership. A rather similar process of differentiation has led to professional geologists coming together nationally within one or two specific societies, where as the amateurs have tended either to remain in local societies or to come together nationally in a different way.
　　Although the process of professionalisation and specialisation was already well under way in British geology during the nineteenth century, its full consequences were thus delayed until the twentieth century. In science generally, however, the nineteenth century must be reckoned as the crucial period for this change in the structure of science.

1.
No clear-cut distinction can be drawn between professionals and amateurs in science: exceptions can be found to any rule. Nevertheless, the word "amateur" does carry a connotation that the person concerned is not fully integrated into the scientific community and, in particular, may not fully share its values.
▲先看前面的句子的主干是No... distinction can be drawn between...，冒号后面的内容是进一步说明前面的观点。在第二个句子中，一上来就有一个转折词nevertheless，表示语意的转折，其主句是the word "amateur" does carry a connotation，后面有一个同位语从句，里面有两个并列谓语。△注意nevertheless表示转折，其后的信息与其前面的信息意思相反，前面讲二者没有很明显的区别，后面便说业余和专业就是不一样。其次要看清the word "amateur" DOES carry a connotation而非DOES NOT
2.
The trend was naturally most obvious in those areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training, and can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the United Kingdom.
▲两个分句有同一个主语，即the trend，两个谓语为was obvious和can be illustrated。前一个分句中based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training修饰areas of science。△注意be illustrated的用法，这里是“举例说明，例证说明”的意思；另外in terms of是“就某事来说，以某事为例”的意思。
3.
A comparison of British geological publications over the last century and a half reveals not simply an increasing emphasis on the primacy of research, but also a changing definition of what constitutes an acceptable research paper.
▲本句的主语是a comparison of British geological publications over the last century and a half（中心词为a comparison），谓语是reveals，宾语主体结构是not simply... but also...所连接的两个并列宾语，注意宾语emphasis和definition前都有分词来修饰。△an increasing emphasis on the primacy of research译为“对科研的重要性的强调不断攀升”，a changing definition of what constitutes an acceptable research paper译为“一篇过得去的科研论文创作标准也有所变化”，其中what指代the elements that。
4.
A rather similar process of differentiation has led to professional geologists coming together nationally within one or two specific societies, whereas the amateurs have tended either to remain in local societies or to come together nationally in a different way.
▲这是一个并列关系的并列句，两个分句由whereas（而）连接，说明了两种情况，前面是在说professional，而后面说amateurs。△coming together nationally within one or two specific societies理解为“组成一到两个全国性的专科学术社团”。

英语表强调用法小结：
英语中有时为了需要，经常要强调句子中的某一成分，这时，就要用到一些强调句型。英语中常见的用来表示强调的句型有以下几种。
一、用助动词do ,did does强调谓语。
用助动词do ,did does放在一般现在时和一般过去时的句子中动词原形前，以强调谓语。例如：
    He did tell all that had happened to him. 他确实把发生的事情都说了。
    She does get up early. 她的确常起得很早。
    Do be careful next time. 下次务必要小心。
二、用倒装句来强调以加强语气。
Never have I seen such a wonderful film. 我从来没看过如此精彩的电影。
So hard did he study that he could easily pass the examination.
他那么努力才能轻易通过考试。
    三、用 what来加强语气。
He needs money. 他所需要钱。
What he needs is money.他所需要的是钱。
Learning and knowledge are important to us, but what is more important is a noble character.学问和知识很重要，但更重要的是高尚的品格。
    四、用in the world, on earth, at all等介词短语来表示强调，常用在疑问句中，与ever同义。
What in the world are you doing in my car? 你究竟在我的车里做什
么？
How on earth did she manage that? 她究竟怎么办到的呢？
Are you at all worried about the forecast? 对这项预报你不担点儿
心吗？
If you ever visit London, you must come and stay with us. 你要是
来伦敦，一定要来我们这来住住。
    五、用形容词very, only, single, such等来修饰名词来表示强调。
This is the very thing I’m after. 这正是我要找的东西。
You are the only person here who can help us. 你是这儿唯一能帮我
们的人。
Not a single mistake did he make in the exam. 他在考试中没出一个
错。
    六、用It is /was….that来强调主语，宾语，状语
   用It is/was +被强调部分+that+句子的其他成分（如指人，that也可以用who, whom）来强调句子的主语，宾语，状语。
   例如：I met him in the street this morning. 今天早上我在大街上遇到了他。
    It was I who met him in the street this morning.（强调主语）
    It was him that I met in the street this morning.（强调宾语）
    It was in the street that I met him this morning.（强调地点状语）
    It was this morning that I met him in the street.（强调时间状语）
    It was because he was ill that he didn’t attend the meeting.(强调原因状语)
  强调句型需要注意的几点：
    1、如果原句中谓语动词使用的是现在范畴的时态（一般现在时、现在进行时、现在完成/现在完成进行时、一般将来时、将来进行时、将来完成时等）用It is…that 。如果原句中谓语动词为过去范畴的时态（一般过去时、过去进行时、过去完成时、过去将来时等）则用It was…that 。有时be前可以使用表示推测的情态动词构成结构。
    It is not everyone that can draw well.不是每个人都能画得好的。
  It was for his eyes that we asked him not to read in the sun.
我们是为他的眼睛着想才叫他不要在太阳下看书的。
It must be Jack who let out the secret.肯定是杰克泄露了秘密。
  2、强调主语用人称代词主格，强调宾语用宾格。
It was I who gave you the book.(不用me)
It was I not him who am your best friend.(谓语与被强调词保持主谓
一致)
It was him that they telephoned.(强调宾语用宾格)
    3、即使被强调成分是句子中的时间状语，地点状语，原因状语等，也
不能用when，where, because要用that.
（1） It was after the war was over that Einstein was able to come back to his research work again.
    战争结束后爱因斯坦才能重新进行他的研究工作。
（2） It was in Athens that the 2004 Olympic Games were held. 2004
年奥运会是在雅典举行的。
（3） It was because of the traffic jam that the chairman cam late.主席是因为堵车才来迟的。
    4、如果被强调的成分有同位语，同位语也应提前。
It was from him, our English teacher, that we learned this English
song.我们从英语老师那学会了这首歌。
    5、Not until句型怎么强调？
    当被强调的是not…until句型时，应将not置于until之前，主句由否定句改为肯定句。
  We didn’t recognize her until she took off her glasses.
她把眼镜拿了，我们才认出她。
  It was not until she took off her glasses that we recognized her.
注意与下面一句的区别：
  Not until she took off her glasses did we recognize her.
此句为not位于句首，要主谓倒装。
   6、疑问句中的强调句型。
   其一般疑问句形式是：Is／Was it+被强调成分+who／that
   其特殊疑问句形式是：疑问词+is／was+被强调成分+that...
Was it in the classroom that the meeting was held? 会议是在教室里
举行的吗？
  Who was it that broke the vase? 是谁打碎了花瓶？
Why is it that you come to the party so late? 到底是为什么你这么晚来晚会？
7、与定语从句连用的强调句型。
  Was it in the house where his grandfather once lived that they found the old picture?
他们是在他祖父曾经住过的房子里找到那张旧照片的吗？
--Where did you meet him? 你在那遇到他的？
--It was in the hotel where he stayed. 在他住的旅馆里。（本句后省略了that I met him）
  8、与其他一些句型结构的区别。
（1）与状语从句的区别。
  It was at 7 o’clock that I arrived. （强调句型，强调时间状语at 7 o’clock ）
   It was 7 o’clock when I arrived.   (when时间状语从句。在7 o’clock前无介词at.)
   It is three years since he came here. 自从他来这已经三年了。
[si* before the fire was put out. 不久大火就被扑灭了。
（2）与主语从句的区别
   It is true that he is honest. 他真的很诚实。
   It is known to all that China is a country with a long history. 众所周知，中国是一个历史悠久的国家。
（3）与there be 句型的区别。
There is no possibility that Bob can win the first prize in the match..鲍勃没有可能在比赛中获得一等奖。
主要搞清楚的一点是：强调句型中去掉It is/was…that后仍然是一个完整的句子。而其他句型则不行。

分析句子：
The overall result has been to make entrance to professional geological journals harder for amateurs, a result that has been reinforced by the widespread introduction of refereeing, first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geological journals in the twentieth century.

今日有待加強的單詞和詞組:
accumulation [Ekju:mjJ5leIF(E)n] n．①积累,积攒 ②聚积物
[同根] accumulate [E5kju:mjuleit] v．积累,积攒,积聚  accumulative [E5kju:mjulEtiv] a．积累而成的,累积(性)的
split up  分开,分裂
subject matter (讨论、著作、影片等的)题目,论题,题材,主要内容
handle [5hAndl] v．①处理,处置,应付,对待,论及 ②触,摸,拿 ③操作,操纵,管理,指挥,训练
clear-cut a．①明确的,清楚的 ②轮廓鲜明的,清晰的
draw a distinction between．．．and．．．  区别…与…
amateur [5AmEtE(, 5AmEtjuE] n.①(艺术、科学等的) 业余爱好者②外行a.①业余爱好的②外行的
[同义] beginner；non-professional
[反义] expert,specialist；professional
connotation [7kCnEu5teiFEn] n．①内涵意义,隐含意义,转义②含蓄
[同根] connote [kC5nEut] v．①包含,意味着        ②暗示,意味着有…的结果(或伴随条件等)
integrate [5inti^reit] v．①使成一体,使合并(with,into)  ②使完全,使完善
[同义] combine,join,perfect
[反义] disintegrate
[同根] integration [7inti5^reiFEn] n．①结合 ②整体
in terms of  从…方面来说,按照
reveal [ri5vi:l] v．①揭示,揭露 ②展现,显示
[同义]disclose,uncover,show,display,demonstrate
[反义] conceal,hide
[同根] revelation [7revi5leiFEn] n．揭示,揭露,显示
definition [7defi5niFEn] n．定义,解释
[同根] define [di5fain] v．①解释,给…下定义 ②使明确,使清楚 ③规定,限定
        definite [5definit] a．明确的,肯定的,限定的
in one's own right  凭本身的权利(或能力、实力、资格等)
incorporate [in5kC:pEreit] v．①包含,吸收 ②合并,混合 a．合并的
[同义] combine,join,merge
[同根] incorporation [in7kC:pE5reiFEn] n．①包含,吸收 ②合并 ③公司
reflect on ①考虑 ②反映,表现
pursue [pE5sju:] v．①从事,忙于,继续 ②追赶,追随,追求③纠缠   
[同义] chase,hunt
[反义] flee,escape
[同根] pursuit [pE5sju:t] n．①追逐,追捕 ②追求,寻找 ③从事,事务,娱乐,爱好
reinforce [7ri:in5fC:s] v．增援,加强
[同义] increase,strengthen
[反义] undermine
[同根] reinforcement [7ri:in5fC:smEnt] n．增援, 加强
referee [7refE5ri:] v．①审阅,鉴定②担任裁判,仲裁,调停
differentiation [7difE7renFi5eiFEn] n．区分,区别,鉴别
[同根] differentiate [7difE5renFieit] v．区分,区别,鉴别
under way在进行中,在前进中
reckon [5rekEn] v．①认为 ②估计,判断 ③指望,想要
expansion [iks5pAnFEn] n．扩展,扩大,扩充,膨胀
[同根] expand [iks5pAnd] v．①扩大,扩展,膨胀 ②变得和蔼愉快,感到心旷神怡

句子分析:
The overall result has beento make entrance to professional geological journals harder for amateurs, a result that has been reinforced by the widespread introduction of refereeing, first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geological journals in the twentieth century.
1．句子主干：The overall result has been to…., a result that….: to
2．a  result that has been reinforced by the widespread introduction of refereeing, first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geological journals in the twentieth century.
a result…century为独立结构， result后置定语从句当修饰语；refereeing后置两个并列的介词片语（by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geological journals in the twentieth century）当修饰语。